Interregional coal flow and its environmental loads transfer in Shanxi Province

J. Geogr.Sci.2011,2l(4):757-767DoI:10.1007/114420110878xo2011 EP Science Press 4 Springer-VerlagInterregional coal flow and its environmental loadstransfer in Shanxi ProvinceXU Zengrang, CHENG Shengkui, ZHEN LinInstitute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, ChinaAbstract: For the low price of coal and ineffective environmental management in mining areaChina is in the dilemma of the increasing coal demand and the serious environmental issuesin mining area. The more coal that is exported from a region, the more heavily it suffers fromthe environmental impacts of coal export. In this paper, the temporal and spatial process ofexporting coal from Shanxi to other provinces of China is traced between 1975 and 2005. Thecoal net export of Shanxi increased to 370.69 million tonnes in 2005, representing an averageannual growth rate of 7. 5% from 1975 to 2005. With the increase of the amount of coal exportfrom Shanxi, the Environmental Loads Transfer(ELT) that import provinces input to miningareas of Shanxi are rising. Effective means of internalizing the environmental externality ofELT lie in: 1)setting up a coal sustainable development fund to restore environment of coalmining area; 2)enforcing environment tax, financial transfer payment and transferring advantage technology of pollution reduction to coal export area; and 3)reducing coal regionalflow by reducing coal demand from power generation and heating and other industriesKeywords: resource flow; environmental impacts; Environmental Loads Transfer(ELT); coal; Shanx1 IntroductionResource Flow Analysis(RFA) is an effective tool for evaluating the sustainability of re-source use and environment Economy and environment are connected through material andenergy flows, from which many environmental problems result(Scasny et al., 2003).Re-ducing material inputs is an alternative management rule for sustainability(Hinterberger etal,1997)Although international trade can be a subtle mechanism by which ecological sustainability is preserved locally through importing biomass from other countries, it can also blur theresponsibility for the ecological effects of production and consumption(Proops et al., 1999Andersson and Lindroth, 2001; Chintrakarn and Millimet, 2006; Frankel and Rose, 2005)Emission inventories based on consumption, rather than production(Peters and HertwichReceived: 2010-06-22 Accepted: 2010-11-30Foundation: Knowledge Innovation Project of Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CASNo, o9V90143ZZAuthor: Xu Zengrang, Ph. D, specialized in resources ecology, and recently concentrated on the impacts of energy use onland use change and ecosystem service. E-mail: xuzr@igsnrraccnwww.geogsci.comspringerlinkcom/content/1009-637x中国煤化工CNMHGJournal of Geographical Sciences2006), may provide greater flexibility to identify the liability to restore environmental damages associated to tradeA resource importer, which might be leaving its own resources intact as a result of a re-striction on the use of domestic resources, could be characterized as import sustainability atthe expense of a resource exporter(Klepper and Stahler, 1998). Atkinson and Hamilton(2002)found that a number of resource exporters appear to be unsustainable, at least on thecriterion that the savings rate of net asset consumption be negative. Increasing the quantityof exports often entails enlarging local environmental impacts and degrading environmentalterms of trade(Munksgaard and Pedersen, 2001). If environmental costs arising from naturalresource exports are not internalized, the consumers in importing countries are implicitlysubsidized at the expense of the welfare and environmental quality of exporting countries(Muradian and Martinez-Alier, 2001). If there are structural conditions keeping the price ofnatural resources relatively low, countries specialized in the export of natural resources mayface deterioration in both monetary and environmental terms of trade in the long run(Mura-dian et al, 2002)The net material flows in China's primary commodity trade from 1950 to 2001 show aninverted-U shaped trend. Processing products for export has been the major form of foreigntrade in China(Ma et aL, 2006). During the period 1997-2003, US CO2 emissions wouldhave increased by 3%-6% if the goods imported from China had been produced in the Us,while about 7%-14% of China's current CO2 emissions are a result of producing exports forUS consumers(Shui and Harriss, 2006)China is the largest coal producer and consumer in the world due to its coal-dominatednergy mix and huge energy consumption. For instance, in 2005 China produced 2190 mil-lion tonnes of coal and consumed 2139 million tonnes of coal, and the country accounted for37% of the world's coal consumption(BP, 2006). Uneven coal distribution in the countryhas caused huge quantities of coal flow across regions. The coal trade on the provincial scalereached 1071 million tonnes--a volume which transported solely by railway in 2005.Shanxi Province plays an important role in the coal market in China. As the biggest coalproducer, Shanxi is also the biggest exporter in China. Since the Ist Five- Year Plan Period(1953-1957), coal production of Shanxi accounted for 1/4 of the total coal production ofChina, and the export from Shanxi accounted for 1/3-1/2 of the total coal export at the provincial scale in China. In this paper, Shanxi is used as an example to trace the tempo-spatialprocess of coal flowing to other provinces in the period from 1975 to 2005. The ELT fromShanxi to other provinces is discussed and compensation mechanisms that would cut downthe environmental externality caused by the regional coal flow are explored2 Methods and data2.1 Flow chart for the studyFigure 1 shows a simple input-output model with only one exporter exporting a resource toseveral importers. If the net export from the exporter is considered, the resource flow is uni-directional. This hypothesis is suitable for Shanxi, because it exports hundreds of millionstonnes of coal to other provinces in China every year. The Total Net Export from exporterTNE) is equal to the sum of Net Imports of the Importers(Nn)(Eq 1)中国煤化工CNMHGXUZengrang et al. Interregional coal flow and its environmental loads transfer in Shanxi Province759Figure 1 An output-input model based on net resource exportTNE=∑MThe production from a resource- rich area can be used by both local and foreign consum-ers. The environmental impacts from local consumption take place within the boundaries ofan export region. As for the resource exports, coal is sold from the exporter to the importerat a low price which could not fully cover the resource, environmental and social costs inChina(Su, 2006). The environmental impacts that are released in export areas during theproduction of goods exported can be seen as the environmental loads that importer transferred to exporter. Thus, it is indispensable to set up a mechanism of environmental com-pensation for resource export(Figure 2)ConsumptionProduction→ ExporterResource flow in incomplete prConsumption in localnvironmental coEl by importerEl by local cosumptionFigure 2 Regional resource flow and environmental load transfer2.2 Data and methodologyThe export and import data of Shanxi and other provinces by railway were taken from theTransportation Yearbooks of China between 1976 and 2006. The Coefficients of environmental Impacts(CEi) are the average level of physical quantity of environmental impactsproduced during the process of a tonne coal extraction in coal mining in Shanxi, accordingto Ju(2006). The Disposal Cost of Environmental Impacts(DCED)can be defined as the costto dispose environmental impacts that produced by a tonne coal production. The DCel inTable l is taken from SU (Su, 2006)Table 1 Coefficients of Environmental Impacts(CED) and Disposal Costs of Environmental Impacts (dCEnCEl (per tonne coal)DCEl (2005 yuan per tonne coal)Land subsidence0. 20 square meterGangue discharge0.134.35Acid mine drainage4.36 tonnesJu Meiting et aL, 2006. Environmental Impacts Assessment of Energy Plan. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press, 158 (inSu L, 2006. The conceit of improving the framework of coal cost account. Coal Economic Research (in Chinese).中国煤化工CNMHGJournal of Geographical SciencesThe eLt in resource export is proportional to the quantity of the net export. So the ELTthat importing provinces input to Shanxi can be calculated as the matrix NE multiplied bythe CEl from coal extraction(Eq 3). The Disposal Cost of Environmental Loads Transf(DCELT) that import provinces should pay to Shanxi equal to the matrix NE multiplied bythe aggregate of DCEl(Eq 4 ). NE denoted the net coal export from Shanxi to other 27 provinces, E denoted coal export from Shanxi, while I denoted the inversion flow of Shanxi im-ported from the same province.NE=E-IELT= NE CElDCELT= NE∑DCEl3 Results3.1 Temporal-spatial distribution of coal exportation from Shanxi to other provincesThere are 6 sub-national areas associated with coal flow in China, such as northern China,northeastern China, northwestern China, eastern China, southern China and southwesternChina. The north, east, south and northeast of China are the four largest areas which importthe bulk of coal from Shanxi Province annually. Southwestern and northwestem China im-ported only small quantities of coal from Shanxi likely due to their remote location, laggingeconomy and rich coal resourcesNorthern China is the area that imports most of its coal from Shanxi. Northern China in-cludes Shanxi, Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei and Inner Mongolia. Hebei and Tianjin are the mainprovinces(or provincial level municipalities)that cause a continual increase in net importsof coal into northern China. The annual increase rate of net imports reached 10. 4% in Hebei,and 7.9% in Tianjin from 1975 to 2005. It should be noted that the net import listed here isnot the local coal consumption in Hebei and Tianjin, for some coal is transported to thecoastal developed area in southeastern China only by transit trains at Hebei and Tianjin. Thenet coal importation of Beijing fluctuated by approximately 14 million tonnes over the pastseveral years due to a readjustment of the industrial sector. For example, the ShougangGroup, one of the leading Iron and Steel Corporations in China, moved to the Hebei prov-ince.Coal importation from Shanxi to coal-rich areas such as Inner Mongolia decreased overthe past 30 years and the net import was only 1. 41 million tonnes in 2005(Figure 3).Eastern China includes coastal provinces or municipalities such as Shanghai, JiangsuZhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Fujian and Shandong. It remains the second largest import area ofcoal from Shanxi. Shandong and Jiangsu are the biggest coal consumers and net importers ineastern China. The net import of coal into Anhui and Fujian reached their peak in 1990, anddropped distinctly since then, due to industrial restructuring such as reducing energy andmaterial demands. The net coal imports to Shanghai over the last 30 years fluctuated at 300thousand tonnes. and the net import of coal in Jiangxi and Zhejiang increased graduallyfrom 1975 to 2005 (Figure 3).Southern China which includes Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainanprovinces is the third largest import region of coal from Shanxi. All provinces in this region中国煤化工CNMHGXU Zengrang et al. Interregional coal flow and its environmental loads transfer in Shanxi Province761Direction and quantity of coal nlow of Shanxi in 1975 Direction and quantity of coal flow cf Shanxi in 2005NMNXBQHSNQH LLNLGSSD031SDAll0.34050230HNGDExporterSD ImporterImport to SXFigure 3 Interprovincial coal flow associated with Shanxi from 1975 to 2005(expressed in million tonnes)but Hainan have imported coal from Shanxi over the past 30 years. Hubei, Henan and Hunanare the main provinces in southern China to import Shanxi coal in bulk. Because of the longdistance from Shanxi, the curves of net imports of coal into Guangdong and Guangxithrough time appear as inverted-U shapes. Coal imported from Shanxi to these two provinces decreased after 1995, while imports from abroad such as vietnam and Australia, increased dramaticallyNortheast China including Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang is the fourth largest coal im-port region from Shanxi. The net import of coal in northeastern China as a whole declinedfrom 1990 to 2005. As the level of self-sufficiency of coal improving and the industry re-structuring in Jilin and Heilongjiang, the importation of coal from Shanxi to these two provinces declined significantly. However, Liaoning still highly depends on Shanxi coalSpatial distribution pattern of provinces importing coal from Shanxi changed slightlyfrom 1975 to 2005. The main coal import provinces from Shanxi over the last three decadeswere Hebei, Tianjin, Beijing, Liaoning, Shandong, Jiangsu, Hubei and Henan. However, theconcentration of coal importers was enhanced in this period(Figure 4). The aggregate of netsX-Shanxi; BJ-Beijing: TJ-Tianjin: HE-Hebei: NMH-Shanghai; JS-Jiangsu; Z-Zhejiang: AH-Anhui; FJ-FujianLN-Liaoning; JL-Jilin; HL-HeilongjiangHN-Hunan; GD-Guangdong: GX-Guangxi; SC-Sichuan; GSD-Shandong: HA- Henan; HB-Hubei;YN- Yunnan; SN-Shaanxi: GS-Gansu;QH-Qinghai: NX-Ningxia; XJ-Xinjiang: Chongqing-CQ; Hainan-HI; Tibet-XZ. The last three provincial units have nocoal nlow with Shanxi中国煤化工CNMHGJournal of Geographical SciencesNet export in 197510.000.960.97-2.832.84-5.89590-9.80-0.02-494.50-14.9714.98-26.9927.006262.73-189.01Net export from 1975 to 2005in1975in2005Figure 4 Spatial pattem of coal net exportation from Shanxi in 1975-2005 (10 tonne)coal exportation from Shanxi increased to 370.69 million tonnes in 2005, up from 42. 46million tonnes in 1975, an increase of 8.7 times over the last 30 years. In 1975, the top coalmport province was Beijing, and the coal neBeijing from Shanxi accounted for23.1% of the total coal net export of Shanxi. The aggregate of coal net import of the top 4中国煤化工CNMHGXU Zengrang et al. Interregional coal flow and its environmental loads transfer in Shanxi Province763import provinces including Beijing, Hebei, Shandong and Hubei, accounted for only 66.6%of the total Shanxi coal exportation in that year. In 2005, the coal net import of the primaryimporter, Hebei, accounted for 51.0% of the total net exportation of Shanxi, and that of thetop 4 importers--Hebei, Shandong, Tianjin and Jiangsu--accounted for 81.6% of the total netcoal exportation from Shanxi.3.2 Factors influencing spatial-temporal distribution of coal flowThere are many factors influencing spatial distribution of coal export. From the angle of geography, the following two aspects are important:(1)The unbalanced distribution of resources among regions. Dividing by the line alongthe Kunlunshan-Qinling-Dabieshan, the northern part of it accounted for 90.3% of the totalcoal reserve, while the southern part only accounted for 9.6%. Dividing by the line of DaXinganling-Taihangshan-Xuefengshan, the westem part of it accounted for 89% of the totalChina coal reserve, while the eastern only accounted for 11%. Shanxi Province accountedfor 1/3 of the total coal reserve of China(Mao and Xu, 1999). The coastal areas have scarcecoal reserves, and the eastern, southern, and northeastern China have to import coal fromcoal rich provinces to support their booming industry and for civilian purpose. In 2005, theaggregation coal production of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia reached 1023million tonnes, of which local consumption was 337 million tonnes, and exportation w686 million tonnes. eastern China produced 280 million tonnes, consumed 630 million ton-nes, and imported 350 million tonnes coal. Southern China produced 230 million tones andimported 150 million tonnes(Wang and Wand, 2006)(2)Transportation network and the distance between coal exporter and importer. Avail-ability of transportation network affects coal flow directly. For instance, there was no rail-way in Tibet before 2006, hence, there was no coal flow between Shanxi and Tibet till 2006Besides, the distance between regions also influences coal flows. The farther an importer isfrom exporter, the less coal it can get from its exporter. Being proximity to Shanxi, northernChina is not only the largest net import region of coal from Shanxi, but also the only regionwhose imports have continually increased over the past 30 years. For instance, Hebei is thenearest province to Shanxi and also is the greatest coal importer from Shanxi. The railwaydistance between Taiyuan(capital of Shanxi)and Shijiazhuang(capital of Hebei)is only 231km, and Hebei imported coal from Shanxi reached 189 million tonnes in 2005, which accounted for 51% of the total Shanxi coal export. As a remote inland region, southwesternChina imports little coal from Shanxi. For instance, rail distance of Taiyuan to Kunming(capital of Yunnan)is 2593 km, Yunnan only imported 10 thousand tonnes coal from Shanxiin 2005. There is an inverse linear correlation at the significant level of 0.05 between thedistance and coal flux from Shanxi to other provinces. Furthermore, there is a regression9.091-0.03d between the flux of net coal export(F)and the distance(D)from Shanxi to other provinces(Xu et aL., 2008)3.3 Environmental loads transfer in interregional coal flowEnvironmental damages produced by coal mining include land degradation, waste water andair emissions and other effects. Land subsidence, gangue discharge and acid mine drainagewere selected to measure the environmental damages of coal exploiting processes in miningYH中国煤化工CNMHG764Journal of Geographical Sciencesareas in Shanxi because of their evident externality. Based on the profile of coal net exporttion from Shanxi to other provinces from 1975 to 2005 and environmental impacts coefficients mentioned above the ELT from importer to exporter is discussedIn the current coal pricing system, disposal costs of the land subsidence, gangue discharge,and acid mine drainage have not been included in environmental costs taken from the coaling process Report can give rise to ELTto the exporter. Thus, the more coal that is exported from Shanxi, the more heavily it suffersfrom the environmental impacts as a result of coal export. In a sense, economic developmentin the southeast coastal area occurs at the price of ecological degeneration in inland exporters such as Shanxi. From the exporters perspective, coal flow is an unfair trade, if coal isexported at a low price and the export process overlooks the severe environmental damageoccurring during coal exploitationThe environmental loads of land subsidence, gangue discharge and acid mine drainagethat top 10 import provinces transferred to Shanxi and a total of all 27 import provinces areshown in Table 24. The elt of Land subsidence to Shanxi increased from 849 ha in 1975to 7414 ha in 2005, while gangue discharge increased from 5.52 million tonnes to 48.19 million tonnes, and acid mine drainage increased from 185. 1 million tonnes to 1616.2 milliontonnesThe coal production of Shanxi was 510. 78 million tonnes in 2005, of which 140.09 million tonnes were consumed locally, and 370.69 million tonnes were exported to other provTable2 Land subsidence that various provinces inputed to Shanxi from 1975 to 2005(10 ha)LNJSAHTotal19750.200060200040040010120.030.06Dl280.170.05210090.130724419950300401600280290080440.130.150053.9620050300543.780.260480.091250200.24008741a about 0.2 m of land subsidence is caused by a tonne of coal extraction.Table 3 Gangue discharge that various provinces inputed to Shanxi from 1975 to 2005(10 tonnes)JS AH SD HA HB HN Total1.270.361.270230.270060.770.210.370.095.5219851521205021.791080.321.400.570.8504415861995192210430.510841.00.3425.7420051953.5124571.693090.588.151.301.5804948.190.13 tonnes of gangue discharge is caused by a tonne of coal extractionTable 4 Acid mine drainage that various provinces inputed to Shanxi from 1975 to 2005(10 tonnes)LNAHHAHBTota19754271204267.82025.7198550.8402168560036210946819228514853211995644867349760364317.196.128333.51386342005653117782415661037196273.543.753.01641616.2a 4.36 tonnes of acid mine drainage is caused by a tonne of coal extraction中国煤化工CNMHGXU Zengrang et aL Interregional coal flow and its environmental loads transfer in Shanxi Provinceinces. Thus, approximately 72% of the coal production of Shanxi goes to meet the needs ofother provinces. The ELT occurring from coal flow accounted for 72% of the total environ-mental impacts from coal production in Shanxi in 20053.4 Internalizing the environmental externality from the ELtIt is important for regional sustainable development to internalize the externality from theELT in coal export. An effective mechanism in the long term to abate environmental externality of resource flow should depend on market system. Coal prices were too low to accurately reflect complete cost of coal in China in the past 50 years(Su, 2006). Coal priceclimbed up with domestic energy shortage and overseas petroleum price increase in recentyears.Steam coal price at mine mouth reached more than 300 yuan per tonne by 2009, 100yuan higher than the price in 2005, resource costs, environment costs and social costs can becovered in current price level to some degree. However, environmental damages are stillserious in most of the coal mines for absence of reasonable management. It is urgent to buildup a sustainable development fund to internalize externality of environment, social and itdustrial restructure during coal exploitation at present. The fund should be collected fromcoal revenue of mining enterprises and be used to restore environment and ecology damagesin coal mining supervised byAbout 4 yuan(1 USS=7 yuan) environmental compensation fare per tonne coal productionhas been imposed from mining enterprises(Su, 2006), which is used to compensate the im-paired crops, ground building destroyed, and to pay for resettlement of residents. Howeverdisposal costs of the land subsidence, gangue discharge and acid mine drainage, whichreached 8.36 yuan(at 2005 yuan) per tonne of coal production according to Table 1, havenot yet been included in the coal fund. Shanxi has tried out to execute coal mine sustainabledevelopment fund to internalize the environment, social and industrial transform cost sinceThe DCELT accounted for 4.59% of the added value of coal mining and dressing industrof Shanxi in 2005. The total loss of ELt rose from 354.8 million yuan to 3097. 6 millionyuan in Shanxi during the period 1975-2005 (Table 5), a growth of 8.7 times the initialvalue(at 2005 fixed value). According to the Polluter Pay Principle, the import provincesshould pay for the environmental damages occurring in Shanxi mining area due to the coaltrade in theory. In practice, there are some barriers to make import provinces to compensateShanxi mining area directly. One is the regulation that involved in low prices of resource andunworthiness of environment induced externality in the economy and the environment dur-ing resource flow(Wang and Chen, 2006). The other is the expensive executive cost to col-lect environmental compensation fee from the customers provinces. So, the central and localgovernments should be accountable for environmental restoring cost in history(before2005)Table 5 Disposal Costs of Environmental Impacts(DCED) that various provinces inputed to Shanxi from 1975to2005(10yuan)°1985fe3556051020148716551754Data in this table are calculated at 2005 fixed prices(NBSC, 2006H中国煤化工CNMHG766Journal of Geographical Sciences4 Discussion and conclusionsSince coal is the bulk trade in Shanxi Province, the huge Environmental Loads Transfer(ELT) resulting from coal flow is the primary factor that leads to environmental damages inmining area in Shanxi. To develop the method of resources regional flow and its ELT into aneffective tool to evaluate what degree an import region depended on natural capital of exporter, and to put the regional compensation mechanism related to resource flow into practice in future, some related issues, e. g, greenhouse gas emission, such as CH4, So2, CO2,should be exploredFor coal rich, moderate geographical location, coal net exportation from Shanxi increasedremarkably from 42.46 million tonnes to 370.69 million tonnes between 1975 and 2005Coal flowing into the dominant provinces such as Hebei, Liaoning, Shandong, Hubei andHenan has increased remarkably over the past 30 years because of their fast economic de-velopment and heavy industrial structure and accessibility to Shanxi. Importers transfer environmental loads to Shanxi for environmental damages produced in Shanxi coal miningareas. The Disposal Cost of Environmental Loads Transfer(DCELT) reached 3097.6 millionyuan in 2005. The coal net exportation from Shanxi, the Environmental Loads Transfer(ELT)that imporrovinces inputed to Shanxi have been increasing in the period from 1975 to2005, representing an increase of 8.7 times its initial value and average annual growth ratereached 7.5%. Effective means of internalizing the ELT lie in: 1)based on a perfect marketmechanism to assign coal prices, it is urgent to set up a coal sustainable development fund toprotect environment and restore ecology degraded; 2) to compensate the environmentaldamages of Shanxi mining area before 2005 mainly by financial payment transfer of thecentral government, enforcement environment tax, and advocating import areas transferringtechnology of clean coal and environmental protection to Shanxi; and 3)to reduce coal demands and constrain regional coal flow between inland and coastal areas by restructuringindustries and improving energy efficiency.ReferencesAndersson JO, Lindroth M, 2001. Ecologically unsustainable trade. Ecological Economics, 37: 113-122.Atkinson G Hamilton K, 2002. International trade and the 'ecological balance of payments. Resources Policy, 28Bp,2006.BpStatisticalReviewofwOrldEnergy.Available:http://www.bp.com/statisticalreviewjUne2006Chintrakarn P. millimet D L, 2006. The environmental consequences of trade: Evidence from subnational tradeflows. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 52: 430-453Frankel J A. Rose A K, 2005. Is trade good or bad for the environment? Sorting out the causality. Review of Eco-mics and Statistics, 87: 85-91Hinterberger F, Luks F, Schmidt-Bleek F, 1997. Material flows vs. natural capital: What makes an economy sus-tainable? Ecological Economics, 23: 1-14Ju m, Zhang Y, Li H, 2006. Environment Impact Assessment of Energy Plan. Beijing: Chemical Industry PressKlepper G Stahler F, 1998. Sustainability in closed and open economies. Review of international Economics, 6488506Ma T, Li B, Fang C et aL., 2006. Analysis of physical flows in primary commodity trade: A case study in China.Resources Conservation and Recycling, 47: 73-81H中国煤化工CNMHGXU Zengrang et aL. Interregional coal flow and its environmental loads transfer in Shanxi ProvinceMao J, Xu H, 1999. Chinas coal resource distribution and perspective prediction. Coal Geology Exloration, 27Munksgaard J, Pedersen K A, 2001. CO accounts for open economies: Producer or consumer responsibility?Energy Policy, 29: 327-334Muradian R, Martinez-Alier J, 2001. Trade and the environment: From a Southern'perspective. Ecological Eco-nics,36:281-297Muradian R, O'Connor M, Martinez-Alier J, 2002. Embodied pollution in trade: Estimating the'environmentalload displacementof industrialised countries. Ecological Economics, 41:51-67Nbsc,2006.ChinaStatisticalYearbook2006.beIjing:ChinaStatisticsprEss.http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2006/html/0902e htmPeters G P, Hertwich E G 2006. Pollution embodied in trade: The Norwegian case. Global Environmental ChangeHuman and Policy Dimensions, 16379-16387Proops JLR, Atkinson G von Schlotheim B F et al, 1999. International trade and the sustainability footprint: Atical criterion for its asScasny M, Kovanda J, Hak T, 2003. Material flow accounts, balances and derived indicators for the Czech Republic during the 1990s: Results and recommendations for methodological improvements. Ecological Eco-ncs,45:41-57Shui B, Harriss R C, 2006. The role of CO2 embodiment in US-China trade. Energy Policy, 34: 4063-4068Su L, 2006. The conceit of improving the framework of coal cost account. Coal Economic Research. (in Chinese)Wang Q, Wand Y, 2006. Outlook of China coal transportation system. China Logistic Purchasing, 16-23Wang R, Chen K, 2006. Causes of poverty and anti-poverty strategies in resource rich area: a case study inXu Z, Cheng S, Gu S et al 2008. Driving forces of resource flow among regions and measurement of resourceflow potential Joumal of Natural Resources, 23: 773-780(in Chinese中国煤化工CNMHG