Analysis of Chinese Euphemism

hwsy@overseaen.comISSN 1009 -5039Overseas English海处英谓htt://www. overseaen.comTel:+86 -551-5690811 5690812Analysis of Chinese Euphemism关成勇(中原T.学院外国语学院,河南郑州450053)Abstract: Euphemism exiss in all languages and cultures, Chinese is no exception. This article aims at analyzing Chinese euphemism bothfom is casifcation and is pragmaic function. Analysis shows that Chinese euphemism could be roughly casied into the fllowingclasses: euphemism avoiding taboo words; euphermism avoidingvulgarity; euphemism reducing or concealing disadvantages and euphemismshowing one's respect. Most of the Chinese euphemisms function at the expense of any maxim or maxims of the CP principle, while al-most all of the euphemisms work in conformity with the PP principle.Key words: Chinese cuphemism; CP principle; PP principle中图分类号:H314文献标识码:A 文章编号 :1009- -5039(2011)08- 0249-021 IntroductionIn China, just like in this world,d, people are afraid of death,Almost in all languages there are some ideas or things thatand they usually try to avoid referring death directly by the verypeople don't want to or fear to mention directly, although wordsword‘"death" or “死”in Chinese. Chinese people call death infor such ideas or things are quite available. The words peoplemany other ways, for example,“逝世"，“过去了",“走了"，"离tend to use in their daily life to substitute the words that they开我们了",“蹬腿儿",“翻白眼儿”,“断气儿”,“不出气儿",don't want to mention directly are called euphemism, or“委 婉“不醒了”,“去见马克思了”,“去世",“谢世",“牺牲",“殉职",语”in Chinese. Then what's euphemism on earth? We have“捐躯",“寿终",“长眠"，“作古",“老了”，“没了”，“不在了”，some definitions for euphemism as follows:“永别了",“溘然长逝",“香消玉殒",“升天",“归土",“归山",A polite word or expression that you use instead of a more“进土",“就木",“埋土”,“人地",“人士",“填沟壑",“行将就direct one to avoid shocking or upsetting someone (Longman木"，“宿草"，“掩泉"，“钻土",“见阎王爷去了”,“玩完了”,Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003)“没命了",“小命丢了", ete... In ancient China, the death of theAn indireet word or phrase that people often use to refer topeople of dfferent social status is called diflerently. People areembarrassing or unpleasant, sometimes to make itliable to punishment if the euphemism of death is not corretlyseem more aceptable than it really is (Advanced Learmer's Eng-written or spoken. For example, death of the emperor is calledlish-Chinese Dictionary, 2004)“崩"，death of governors (诸侯) is called“ 薨", death of primeA polite, tactul, or less explicit way used to avoid the directminister is called“卒 ”, death of inferior oficils is called“不naming of an unpleasant, painful, or frightening reality (Webster's禄”，death of the average people is called“死", ete... To de-Third New Intermational Dictionary, 1961)scribe the emperor's death, there are many other euphemisms inEuphemism is quite commonplace in Chinese, since Chinabooks of history, for example, “暴崩",“崩驾",“崩逝",“崩殂",is a most courteous civilization from the ancient time. For exam-“宾空"，“宾天”，“大讳”，“大行”，“大忧"，“登假",“宫牟晏ple, in the vilage, if a person died at a normal age, people驾",“驾崩"，“弃朝”,“弃群臣",“弃天下",“千秋”，“千秋万wouldn't say“死了", in stead, they would usually use“老了”to古",“千秋万世"，“千秋万岁",“山陵崩”，“上宾",“上仙”,express the person's death, although children or people that don't“升遐"”，“升驭"， “晚驾"”， “宴驾”， “宴归"， “铸鼎", ete...have a close relationship with the deceased may use“死了”pri-Meanwhile, because of religion, death of people may be called:vately, and even publicly for children, since they know nothing“蝉蜕",“登真",“遁化"，“返真元",“跨鹤"，“散形",“蜕化"，about euphemism or indirectness, If the dead person is of a“羽化”,“仙逝",“蓬岛归真"，“登莲界",“归寂",“归西",“归young age, people would say“夭折"; If the person is very真",“寂灭"，“灭度",“涅磐",“迁寂",“迁神"，“迁形”，“人.knowledgeable, people may say“去 见马克思了”; In ancient寂”，“升西天”。“识灭",“无常"“圆寂",“坐化",e... Intimes, there are more strict rules for people to call the dead ofnorthem China, people usually make various steamed wheat food,different social position, which will be analyzed later in this e8-when they finished the steaming, they don't say“蒸完 了", in-say. In one word, as a language of more than five thousand years,stead, they say“蒸满了”, if any children say such words in aa language that is spoken by one foth of the people on earthwtong way, he or she is usully blamed.now，Chinese has developed a large variety of euphemism, and2.2 Euphemism avolding vulgarityits cassfication shall be seen in the next part.Some words are conceived vulgar if we use them directly, for2 Classification of Chinese Eophemismexample, “小便"，“尿尿" or "piss" in English is quite vulgar,2.1 Euphemism avoiding taboo wordspeople usually use it in a more indirect way such as“解 手" or中国煤化工YHCNMH G收稿日期:2011-03- -02修回日期:2011-03- -27作者简介:关成勇,中原工学院外国语学院,助救,硕士研究生。$栏目责任编辑:谢嫒嫒.、路泗邇熏等研究量 2492011年8月Overseas English 海外美语“解小手”or“放水".“大便" or "shit" in English is ully他e-2) Maxim of Quality--Try to make your contribution onefered toas“解大手”or“蹲会儿”or even“去伦敦";“上厕that is true, speifially: ①Do not say what you believe to be所" or“go to the toilet" in English is usually rerered to as“更false; ②Do not say those for which you lack adequate evidence.衣"，“出恭",“方便",“去盥洗室"，“解手”，“上洗手间”，“解3) Maxim of Relation--Make your contribution relevant决个人问题",“办杂事”，“上卫生间"，"上wC", e.. "Toilet”4) Maxim of Manner-- -Be perspicuous and specific:①Avoidis usually rferred to as“卫生间",“ 洗手间”,“五谷轮回之所”obscurity; ②Avoid ambiguity; ③Be brief; ④Be orderly (Jiangin Joumey to the West, “WC" ete..W angqi, 2000).CP principle is usually observed in daily communication,2.3 Euphemism reducing or concealing disadvantagehowever, when as far as euphemism is concemed, is such princi-If your friend treats you at home with great hospitality, howple still function? Let's see the fllwing analysis:ever, his cooking is relatively bad, when he asked you whetherFirstly, the maxim of quantity is frequently violated when ethe dishes tasted good. Would you answer directly that the fooduphemisms are used, for example, a lady who is pregnant andtasted very bad or not delicious? Most probably you would saywant to tell her husband the good news, she may say“我有了 ”，something like this: It tastes very good, and would be better ifsuch expression is not in violation of the quantity maxim, the ad-ou put morealt in it. This kind of euphemism is called eu-equate information should be“我怀孕了' .phemism reducing or concealing disadvantage. In evaluating aSecondly, the maxim of quality is also frequently violatedteacher's course, you may not use the word“bad", instead, youwhen using euphemism, for instance, Chinese expression to ex-may choose the word“plain' . In describing some person's ap-press death could be“老了", however,“老了”or "being old" inpearance, you may call“a fat man"English ually means“of old age" and doesn't mean death in itsgirl"“a slender girl" as well, and“an ugly man”“a plain man'，daily used meaning.e.. We don't say someone loks old, but we say someone isThirdly, the maxim of relation is also sometimes violated inmature. We don't say someone that somebody is crippled, inthe use euphemisms, for example, the Chinese euphemism“来大stead, we say that somebody's legs are not well. We don't say姨妈了”has nothing to do with“来月经了”，here“大姨妈"is“deaf" or“聋子”in Chinese, instead, we say“耳背".a person, who is used to describe women's“"menstruation' , thus2.4 Euphemism showing one's respectTo show one's respect, one needs to degrade oneself while atFourthly, the maxim of manner is always violatedthe same time upgrade others. For example, in ancient Chineseof Chinese euphemism, if this maxim is not violated, such a termwe have the fllowing euphemisms to degrade oneself and up-or expression can't be called euphemism. Why? Because eu-grade others: When we refer to ourselves, we may say“在 下'，acterized with“indirectness", while the maxim of“卑职"，“愚”，“鄙人”，“小弟”,“敝公司"，“晚辈" ;When wemanner demands that people should be brief and orderly, not berefer to others, we may say“阁下”,“兄台”,“前辈",“贵公司”，obscure and ambiguous. For example,“我" is the briefest way of“台端"，“台驾"，“台甫"，“足下”; Other people's relativesChinese first person singular form, however, when euphemismsmaybe rfered toas“令尊”，“令堂”，“令亲"，“尊夫人”，“令are used,“在下",“卑职",“愚",“鄙人",“小弟" would appear.郎”，“令爱",while we call rlatives of oneself “贱内”，“家父",In one word, Chinese euphemisms are usually used at the“家母",“犬子”; We call psessions of oneself“寒舍"，“拙作"，,expense of any maxim or maxims of CP principle.while we call pssession of others“贵府",“贵庚"，“贵恙”，“大3.2 Politeness Principle perspective作",“高寿”，“贵姓"; One's own opinion is clled “愚见”",“拙Since some of the Chinese euphemisms are adopted for the见", opinion of others' are called“高见"; While adressing peo-sake of respecting others, they must have something to do withple of senior age or senior auboriy, we maysay“您”， “王老”politeness. So as far as Chinese euphemisms are“您老”; other person's to correction ofliteness Princeiple (hereinafter briefly called “PP principle' ') can'tyour work is called“斧正”; To refer to one's parents- in-law, webe neglected. According to Leech, we have the following maximsay “泰山”，“泰水"; To ask advice from other people is alledfor PP principle to fllow:“赐教"; To read other person's book or books or anticle or arti-1)Tact Maxim (in impositives and commisives);①Minimizecles is called“拜 读"; In ancient China, even the emperor alsocost to other,②Maximize benefit to others.humbly call himself “寡人”,“孤”，ete...2)Generosity Maxim_ (in impositives and cmmisive): ①3 Pragmatic Function of Chinese EuphemismMinimize benefit to sel;②Maximize cost to self.3)Approbation Maxim (in expresives and assertives): ①3.1 Cooperative Principle perspectiveMinimize dispraise of other,②Maximize praise of other.To communicate with each other, people need to obey cer-4)Modesty Maxim (in expressives and asrtives): ①tain rules, Cooperative Principle (hereinafter called CP principle)Minimize praise of self;②Maximize dispraise of self.is one of those rules thal people ually obey or violate some-5)Agreement Maxim:①Minimize disagreement between selftimes. Then what about Chinese euphemisms? Are they also inand other,②Maximize agreement between self and other.conformity with the CP principle? Before we come to our analy-6)Sympathy Maxim (in assertives): ①Minimize antipathysis, let's first get a clear idea on wbat is CP principle. Accordingbetween self and other, ②Maximize sympathy between self andto Grice, we have the fllowing four maxims to obey for CP prin-other. (He Ziran, 2006)ciple:In euphemism. resDecting others, we have the fllowing1) Maxim of Quantity:①Make your contibution as infoma-Chinese euphe中国煤化工"”,“卑职"，“愚",tive as is required for the curent purpose of exchange;②Do notYHCNMH G(下转第286页)make your contribution more informative than is required.栳目睹任编辑:谢嫒嫒250■通 半研究糊關的鬱。Overseas English 海外美i2011年8月Nowadays, lots of daily -used articles and medicine namesguage and culture are inseparable. This fact has significant im-use metaphors to show their functions. It helps common people toplication both for foreign language teachers and its leamers. Inknow science. In addition, some English metaphors embody thesome sense, culture acquisition is similar to language acquisition.English nation's culture view on value. All the custom, myth, re-The acquiring process in both cases is more or less subconsciousligion or living habits reflect a nation's culture view on value. Butto a native speaker and conscious to a non-native speaker. Sec-what we refer here is the things that deeply take root in theond, from the practice, it makes us realize that a better under-thought of English nation. In many eircumstances, this kind ofstanding of English metaphor facilitates the language learming,culture view on value is expressed by metaphors. The most out-not only from language itself, but also from the angle of its cul-standing example is the culture view on value about "Life's short,ture. Metaphors are found in all languages, they are pervasive intime's precious". For instance, some well-known sayings whicheveryday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action.vere written by Johnson, like "Life's a short simmer.", "SpareIn a word, metaphors become models for perceiving and inter-moments are the golden of time." Also, people compare humanpreting the world.life to a big stage in both English and Chinese culture value.References:English literature colossus Shakespeare said, "AIll the world'sstage." George Lakoff and Mark Johnson believed that the deep-[1] Holy Bible.CHINESE/ENGLISH(UV NRSV)[M].National ISPM& C,2000.est culture view of value in a culture community is closely relat-ed to this culture community's metaphor conception.[2] Hu Zhuang-lin.Language and Culture, Linguistics[M]Beijing;Beijing University Press,2001."No single metaphor can encompass the full reality of thesubject it seeks to describe because, while illuminating some as-[3] Li Hui-qing, Han Qi -ai.100 Classical Allusions In Englishpects of a topic, it also obscures other aspects. Why is metaphor[M].Xian:Xian Jiaotong University Pes1990.so powerful? We may have some ideas from Ellen L. Maher's[4] Wang Yu -long.English Rhetoric and Writing,Qindao Press,1996.words: A picture may indeed be worth a thousand words, but a[5]戴镏齡,胡壮麟学海采珠(上卷)M].四川:成都科技大学出版metaphor used to evoke a mental picture may be even more pow-社,2005.erful. It shares the picture's ability to prod the visual imaginationand to enlist an emotional response, while it controls the direc-[6]谷彦君.英语的社会文化背景与英语隐喻的形成[J.佳木斯大学社会科学学报,200().tion of the attention and emotion more efectively than the pic-ture." (Wang Yulong, 1996, 29)[7]李鲁,郑声涛.英语隐喻与英语的社会文化[小.学海采珠(下卷)[M.四川:成都科技大学出版社,2005.4 Conclusion[8] 刘昌华.隐喻的民族性1.西安外国语学院学报2000(4)[9]文君隐喻英语修辞格词典[M.重庆:重庆大学出版社,1992.vivid nation culture connotation. The assumption of this paper[10]张治英.英语隐喻形成的社会文化背景及其翻译[J].湖南商falls into two points: first, from the theory, it proves that language学院学报19995),and culture need to be studied together. As is well known, lan-(上接第250页)In one word, the Approbation Maxim and the Modesty Max-“鄙人",“小弟", since this way of adressing oneself has greatlyim are often observed among tally six maxims of the PP princi-reduced oneself before the addressee, the Modesty Maxim isple in Chinese euphemism.strictly observed, that is "Minimize praise of self; Maximize dis-praise of self". w hile in euphemisms addressing others or others'relatives, we have the fllowing versions:“阁下”， “兄台”， “前辈",“贵公司",“台端”,“台驾",“台甫",“足下”,“您",“您老"，rich in euphemism which could be roughly clasified into the fol-“令尊",“令堂",“令亲",“尊夫人”,“令郎",“令爱" ,those frmslowing classes: euphemism avoiding taboo words; euphemismof addressing others or other's relatives have greatly upgraded theavoiding vulgarity; euphemism reducing or concealing disadvan-other party's status, thus the Approbation Maxim is observed,phemisms function at the expense of any maxim or maxims of thenamely,“Minimizing dispraise of other and Maximizing praise ofother".CP principle, while almost all of the euphemisms work in confor-When also have euphemisms reducing or concealing disad-mity with the PP principle.vantages, this kind of euphemism is also in conformity with theApprobation Maxim, for example, if someone is deaf, we dont[1]何自然.语用学讲稿[M.南京:南京师范大学出版社,2004.call him a deafor“聋子”directly, instead, we would like to call[2]姜望琪.当代语用学[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2003.him "ears doesn't work wel" or“耳朵不好使" or“耳朵背”，in[3]张向阳.语言禁忌现象的立体透视[].解放军外国语学院学this way, the impolite way of exposing other's disadvantage is报,199(4).avoided, and the dispraise of other is minimized.[4]束定芳,徐金元，委婉语研究:回顾与前瞻[].外国语,1995(5).中国煤化工MHCNMHG286通 学研究洞难湖一”.本栏目责任编辑:谢媛娩.