Quantitative study on the urban fresh Water consumption since Chinese rapid urbanization

Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204器) Empirical StudyQuantitative study on the urban fresh water consumption sinceChinese rapid urbanizationZhu Peng 1,2.3, Zhang Lei 1”1. Instiute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, P. R. China2. Graduate Universit, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Bejing 10049, P. R. China3. Tianjin Economic Development Institute, Tianjin 300202, P. R. ChinaAbstract: The development of urbanization has a close relationship with fresh water resources, especially in the rapidurbaniation period. By analyzing the course of the urbanization development and the experience of international ur-banizcation development, the paper confirms the starting time of the rapid urbanization. Based on the ecological theo-ry, urban fresh water consumption is composed of three types: the direct, the indirect cand the induced water consump-tion. And the paper constructs calculation model of the indireet and the induced water consumption. Using the relatedstatistics data, the paper makes an empirical research on the changes of the camount and structure of water consump-tion. Then it discusses the correlation between the water consumption and the amount of urban population, and theresult shows that the amount of the water consumption and the urban population have a remarkable correlation withthe exception of the amount of the indirect water consumption, and the curves take on quadratic function form. Last,from the urban fiunction point of view, the paper anatomizes the cause of the urban water consumption changes.Keywords: Rapid urbanization; Fresh water consumption; Direct water consumption; Indirect water consumption;Induced water consumption1. Introductionwith the changes mentioned above. As we allknow, the development of urbanization needs theWith the development of technology, human steady supply of all kinds of national resources,beings have a more reliance on the resources and especially the water resources 45. However, theenvironment than ever before . Fresh water re- contradiction between water supply and needs issources are one of the fundamental natural resourc-increasingly obvious, especially in the northernes and the important economic resources, and they and coastal urban region as well as the severe pol-are the important part of national powerl21. At the luted region. And water resources have becomesame time, fresh water resources are the organicone of the primary factors that restrict the develop-part and the dominating element of the ecological ment of our national urbanization and our socialenvironment. What's more, fresh water resourcesand economic development 0. So it's necessaryare absolutely necessary in daily life and they are to make a quantitative study on the makeup andrelated to the improvement of people's health andstructure of urban water consumption. And thislife. With the process of urbanization, the urban will lay a foundation on disclosing urban waterpopulation is continuously increasing, its area isconsumption in the process of urbanization. Theincreasingly enlarged and its industry structure is work will improve water resources good use andupgraded. At the same time, the total amount of guarantee the healthy development of our nationalwater consumption, the consumption structure andurbanization.the water use efficiency in urban area correspond2. The process of our national urbanizationReceived July 21, 2008; Acepted Nov. 24, 2008中国煤化工tion in China has* Corresponding author. E-mail addres: zhangl@igsnrr.ac.cnbeen:YHC N M H Gnce the establish-Author: Zhu Peng (1981- ), male, PhD candidate, specialized inurbanization and water resources.ment of new China (Fig.1). After experiencing theZhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204temporary healthy development period, the devel-in 1996. Since 1996, the total amount of wateropment has been basically suspended from 1960consumption in China hasn't changed a lot, butto 1980, and the urban population increased verythe amount of urban water consumption has in-slowly. Most scholars take a view that our countrycreased very quickly. From urban domestic waterbelongs to under-urbanization compared with oth-consumption, we can see clearly that the amounter developing countries 7, and they explained theof water consumption has continuously increasedphenomenon based on the household registration(Fig.2). From 1997 to 2006, the amount of urbansystem and the urban-rural dual system [8,9]. Butdomestic water consumption increased by 15,000the urbanization has obviously stepped up sincemillion cubic meters that was from 24,700 mil-1996, and the urbanization ratio reached 30.48%lion cubic meters to 39,800 million cubic meters.in 1996. Since 1996, the urbanization ratio has in-And the trending curve basically takes on linearitycreased by 1 .3% every year, and it reached 43.9%increase. In conclusion, the urban water consump-in 2006. At the same time, the urban populationtion in China has changed remarkably. Along withreached more than 570 million.the rapid urbanization, the population concentratesBased on the international experience andin cities and towns, which leads to the urban waterour domestic development demonstration on thesupply pressure and urban water shortage there””.process of urbanization (10), we can make sure thatAnd so it's necessary to make a quantitative studythe rapid urbanization phase in our country beganon the urban fresh water consumption.Rspid deweloping stage3. Analysis of the composition of7000050urban fresh water consumption45in the process of urbanization60000085000035Based on the previous view-4000030point, besides ecological water25.3000020use, human water use mainly in-2000015cludes agricultural, industrial and10旨domestic water use, and they al-100000t.1.MM........most take a half proportion of allthe available water resources1952 19571960 1962 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1996 2001 2006yearAnd urban water consumption is1 urb an population -◆- urb anization ratocomposed of industrial, domesticand ecological water consumptionFig1. Urbanization development process in China[13]. However, it doesn't comprise唱450the total urban water consumption, 400and it is actually only a small partg 35of the urban water consumption.目30By studying the theory of the. 25Ecology and Urban Ecology, weknow that the flow of the energyin each nutrition rank is based ong5the order of the“ecological pyra-. mid" in the natrl _ecological sys-1997 1998 1999 200020012002200320042005 2006中国煤化工cological sys-yeYHC N M H Gan ecologicalFig.2. Changes of urban domestic water consumption in China since 1997 system it obeys the opposite order.196Zhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204Water Preserving RegionDirect WaterSmallConsunmptionEco-svstemUrban aterIndirect aterConsunpt ionConsumptionRural Eo-systemInduced WaterNatural Eco-systen\ LargeFig.3. Composition of urban fresh water consumption and the preserving regionSo in order to keep balance and order in the urbanThe direct water consumption. It primarilyecological system, there will be inputted substancemeets the demands of urban function of“central-and energy from outer ecological system 14. Urban izing living”and“centralizing consuming". Thiswater consumption is composed of the followingpart is mainly from the urban ecological system.three parts: the direct, the indirect and the inducedThe indirect water consumption. It primar-water consumption u5), and in correspondence, theily meets the demands of the urban function ofregion that preserves the above three parts water“centralizing consuming". As a location of central-consumption is composed of three kinds of regions izing consuming space in a country and a region,(Fig.3), that is urban ecological system, rural eco- urban fundamental substance consumption has alogical system and natural ecological system.large amount and many kinds. There needs a largeAnd the buildup of urban water consumptionamount of agricultural by-product in the urbanhas a close relationship with the urban function region, such as food, vegetables and meat, and it(Fig.4). As far as urban functions are concerned, needs water resources to produce these products.with the development of urbanization, the two And this part of water is the indirect water con-main urban functions have been gradually evolvedsumption and it is mainly from the rural ecologicalinto four, which is from“centralizing living”andsystem surrounding urban regions.“centralizing consumption”to“centralizing living,The induced water consumption. It primar-centralizing consumption, centralizing production, ily meets the demands of environment waterand centralizing pollution’ 16]. What's more, with consumption that guarantees urban survival andthe development of urbanization, the function of development. And this part of water consumptionproduction and pollution has been strengthened.is responding to the centralizing pollution func-tion of cities and towns. With the development ofUrban functioncities and towns, there are many kinds of exhaustgas and solid pollutants that are collected in the re-gion. And these bring hazard to the urban ecologi-Centralizecal system. In order to keep the balance of urbanproductionIringconsunptionpollutionecological system, it needs some forest lands and1[grass lands to absorb and purge exhaust gas, suchas CO2. And the green land needs water resourcesDirect waterIndirect waterInduced waterconsumptionthat are the induced water consumption. And thisis from the broader natural ecological system.Urban watr consunption中国煤化工tative methodFig.4. Relationship between urban function and waterYHCNMHGBased on the above analysis, we clearly know197Zhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204that urban water consumption is composed of threewhere IGE represents the total area of indirectparts, which are the direct, indirect and inducedpasture, Tg the total area of grassand, P the urbanwater consumption. It is very simple to calculatepopulation, Cg mutton and beef consumption perthe direct water consumption according to theperson, and TCg the total output of mutton andrelated data and they can be checked from the na-beef.tional and regional data. As far as the indirect andinduced water consumption is concerned, there4.1.2 Calculation formula of the indirect waterbeing no ready-made data, we have to build theconsumptionmathematical model and compute it systemically.IAW=TAWxIAE(3)TAE4.1 Quantitative method of the indirect water con-where IA W represents the total amount of thesumptionindirect irrigation water, TAW the total amount ofIn order to calculate the indirect water con-the irrigation water, and TAE the total sown area.sumption, we need to calculate the amount ofIRW = M x(IAE + IGE)(4)water that is consumed by all kinds of agriculturalby-products, and those products are consumed inwhere IRW represents precipitation engrossedurban household domestic life. For convenienceby the indirect land use, and M water producingand data acquirability, the paper chooses the fol-per area.lowing nine kinds of product to calculate the indi-IFW =QxTFW(5)rect water consumption: grain, vegetable, eatableplant oil, pork, mutton and beef, poultry and poul-where IFW represents the indirect water con-sumption of forestry, animal husbandry and fish-try egg, fruit, and aquatic product.ery, a the indirect water consumption coefficient ofsumption, we need to calculate the amount of forestry, animal husbandry and fishery, and TFWthe total water consumption of forestry, animalhusbandry and fishery.TIW = E(IAW, IRW,IFW)(6)where TIW represents the total indirect waterrect water consumption that are grain, vegetable,consumption.eatable plant oil, pork, mutton and beef, poultryand poultry egg, fruit, and aquatic product.4.2 Calculation of induced water consumption4.1.1 Calculation formula of the indirect land useCalculating the induced water consumption ismainly based on the calculation of the total amountPxCiIAE= ETax(1)of urban carbon emission. For convenience andTCidata acquirability, the forestry land as the only fac-where IAE represents the total area of indirecttor that absorbs carbon emission is selected. First-agricultural land use, Ta the total sown area, P thely, the area of forestry land that absorbs carbonurban population, Ci different kinds of agriculturalemission is calculated; secondly, the total waterby-products consumption per person, and TCi theconsumption that is consumed by the forestry landtotal output of different kinds of agricultural by-is calculated. and that is the amount of the inducedproducts.water co中国煤化工IGE=Tg xPxCg(2)I YHCNMHGTCgCd198Zhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204where IDW represents the total amount of the consumption didn't change a lot, and the amountinduced water consumption, Tc the total amount ofmight increase or decrease in different years. How-the urban carbon emission, Cd carbon absorbing ever, the amount of the direct and induced watercoefficient, and M represents water producing perconsumption had been increasing, and the increas-area. .ing extent of the induced water consumption wasthe biggest among the three parts. The amount of5. The empirical analysis of urban water con- the direct water consumption increased about 300sumption since the rapid urbanizationhundred million cubic meters from 1997 to 2006,and the amount was from 1,155 to 1,487 hundred5.1 Data sourcemillion cubic meters. At the same time, the amountof the induced water consumption doubled, andThe data source: China Statistical Yearbook, the amount was from 1,521 to 3,552 hundred mil-China Water Resources Bulletin, China Agricultur-lion cubic meters.al Yearbook, China Land and Resources AlmanacAs far as the proportion structure of the threeand some other related statistical data and booksparts water consumption is concerned (Fig.5), wecan see clearly that the proportion of the directwater consumption basically kept stabile and the5.2 Calculation of water consumptionproportion was about 18%. The proportion of theindirect water consumption was continuously de-Based on the above formulation and the relatedcreasing, and the proportion decreased from 59%data, the paper calculates the urban direct, indirect to 42% during 1997 to 2006. The proportion ofand induced water consumption since 1997 (Table the induced water consumption was continuously1).increasing, and the proportion increased from 23%From 1997 to 2006, as far as the amount is to 41% in the same period.concerned, the total urban water consumption ofour county was continuously increasing (however5.3 Analysis of the relationship between thewaving in particular year), and the amount of wa- amount of the water consumption and the popula-ter consumption increased more than 2,000 hun- tion urbanizationdred million cubic meters from 1997 to 2006, andthe amount was from 6,487 to 8,747 hundred mil-The population growth has a close relationshiplion cubic meters. The amount of the indirect water with the change of the amount of the water con-sumption, and it's the main reason for the changeTable 1of the amount of the water consumption (241. ToUrban water consumption, 1997-2006 (10* m)explore the relationship between the amount of theWater consumption DirectIndirect Induced Totalwater consumption and population urbanization in19971,1553,8211,5216,497the rapid urbanization process, the five following19981,167 4,0771,5376,781factors are selected to make a study, which are thepopulation of cities and towns, the amount of the1999l ,206 3,5241553 ;6,282total water consumption, the amount of the direct,20001,2073,3141,5696,089indirect and induced water consumption. Dispers-20011,2323,6351,7976,66ing plot and simulating curves are drafted (Fig.6-20021,246 3,8252,060 7,131Fig.9). .20031,2883,9712,360 7,619We fop spp that thg amaunt of the water con-20041,3553,5772,7057,638sump中国煤化工cities and towns2005.1,422 3,944 3,100 8,466haveY片C N M H Gvith the exception20061,487 3,709 3,528,747of the amount of the indirect water consumption,99Zhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204100%[0% |80% I70%0%20% I)% l1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 200 32004 2005 2006Year口direct water consunption日indirct water consumption四induced water consumptionFig.5. The proportion structure of the water consumption400100000y= 1E05x2- 10304x+ 28734R=094090o tE 9000g 800000700030006000300 L3000 37500 4000 42500 45000 47500 5000 2500 5000 S7S00 600030000 37500 4000 42500 4500047500 5000 S2500 25000 59700ubanpopulationQ10' pesean)wbsnpopulit brx00 persmns)Fig.6. The relationship between the amount of theFig.7. Relationship between the amount of the urbanindirect water consumption and urban populationinduced water consumption and urban16003800y= IE062 088+8 296.5y= 806x .0699+ 1621R=097983400R'=09978;130014002600E 2200 .300 t1800200100 L10003000 37500 4000 4200 4000 47500 500000 2500 550000 575035000 .sem se enn 52500 5000 57500ubun poputara0 pusone)中国煤化工、。Fig.8. Relationship between the total amount of theFig.9. FYH.CNMHGntoftheurbanurban water consumption and urbandirect water consumption and urbanZhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204and the curves take on quadratic function form. in the process of urbanization, we can make a con-And the correlation degree is very intense, butclusion that the rapid urbanization phase in Chinathere are differences among them. The rank of the began in 1996. Since 1996, the ratio of populationcorrelation degree is as follows: induced waterurbanization has increased by 1.3% every year,consumption>direct water consumption>total wa- and it's more quickly than that at other stages. Atter consumption. Based on the above analysis, wethe same time, the amount of water consumptioncan make a conclusion that in the rapid urbaniza- in cities and towns increased very quickly.tion stage, the amount of the total water consump-Based on the theory of ecology, urban watertion and the amount of the direct and induced wa- consumption is divided into three parts, the direct,ter consumption have the trend of keep increasing. the indirect and the induced water consumption.The direct water consumption is all kinds of pro-5.4 Analysis of the relationship between the ducing and living activities' water consumption; theamount of urban water consumption and urbanindirect water consumption is used to produce allfunctionskinds of agricultural by-products that are needed byurban citizens; the induced water consumption isThe modern cities and towns have four func- used to guarantee urban environmental security.tions, which are“centralizing living, centralizingBy calculating the amount of water that is usedconsuming, centralizing producing, and central- by all kinds of agricultural by- products consumedizing polluting”. With the rapid development of by urban citizens' domestic life, we can get theurbanization and the increase of urban population,amount of the indirect water consumption. For con-the increase of the amount of urban direct water venience and data acquirability, the paper choosesconsumption is inevitable. As cities and townsthe following nine kinds of product to calculate theare places of centralizing consuming, the amount indirect water consumption: grain, vegetable, eat-of the agricultural by-products consumption isable plant oil, pork, mutton and beef, poultry andcontinuously increasing in the process of rapidpoultry egg, fruit, and aquatic product. Calculatingurbanization. But at the same time, the agricul-the induced water consumption is mainly based ontural water consumption keeps decreasing and the calculation of the total amount of carbon emis-the indirect water consumption is mainly from sion in cities and towns. The forestry land is select-the agricultural water consumption, and so theed as the only factor that absorbs carbon emission.amount of the indirect water consumption keeps Firstly, the area of forestry land that absorbs carbonstabilization. What's more, with the buildup of the .emission is calculated; secondly, the total waterfunction of living, consuming and producing, there consumption that is consumed by the forestry landare more and more pollutants centralizing in cit-is calculated, and that is the amount of the inducedies and towns, and this will bring a great pressure water consumption.on the ecological environment. In the process ofUsing the formatted expressions, the paper cal-rapid urbanization, all the industry has a trend of culates the amount of the urban water consumptionrapid development, and the amount of the carbonrom 1997 to 2006. The amount of the total urbandioxide emission will greatly increase, and so the water consumption, both of the amount of the di-amount of the induced water consumption will rect and that of the induced water consumption hasalso increase quickly, and its proportion in the total been increasing since 1997; however, the amountwater consumption will become bigger and bigger. of the indirect water consumption basically keepsstable. As far as the structure of water consump-6. Conclusionstion is soncerned the nnortion of the inducedwate中国煤化工ously increasing,Based on the international urbanization experi- theYHC N M H Gi is continuouslyence and our national development demonstration decreasing, and the direct water consumption201Zhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204proportion basically keeps stable. The amounts of24-40.the water consumption and the urban population[9] Weiskopf D, Thomas E. The relevance of the Chinesehave a remarkable correlation but the amount ofexperience in the third world economic development.Theory and Society, 1980, (4): 283-318.the indirect water consumption, and the curves[10] Northam RM. Urban geography. New York: Johntake on quadratic function form. And they all keepWiley and Sons; 1975. .increasing with the increase of urban population.[11] Wu PL, Chen XH. Sustainable development of Shan-What's more, the change of urban water consump-dong peninsula urtban agglomeration: a scenario analy-tion has a close relationship with urban functions.sis based on water shortage and water environmentchanges. Ecological Economy, 2008, 4(2): 189-197.Acknowledgements[12] Jenerette GD, Larsen L. A global perspective onchanging sustainable urban water supplies. Global andThis work is supported by the Key Project ofPlanetary Change, 2006, 50(3-4): 202-211.National Natural Science Foundation of China [13] Qian Y, Liu CHM, et al. 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Advances in Agronomy, 2007, 95: 1-76.202Zhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204Appendix A: Data of direct water consumption & induced water consumptionDirect water consumption (10* m)Induced water consumptionYearUrban domesticIndustrialTc (10°t)Cd (103 kghm)IDW (10* m)19972471,12119.938.671,521.219982551,12620.11,536.819992671,15920.41,552.620002841,13920.61,568.620013071,14223.61,797.5200232127.02,059.820033341,17730.92,360.420043601,22935.52,704.92005811,28540.63,099.720063981,34446.63,552.0Appendix B: Indirect water consumption data(1) Ta (103 hm2)YeaGrainVegetableEatable plant oilSoySucculenceGrass landOrchard112,912.911,288.1912,380.758,346.251,817.76265,2579,952.20113,788.212,291.1612,918.738,500.171,861.66264,44910,143.22113,160.913,346.6413,905.92 .7,961.661,889.42264,39810,431.64108,462.715,236.5215,400.35 .9,306.762,141.66263,76910,976.51106,079.716,339.0014,630.999,481.802,590.55263,84611,468.24103,891.017,353.3014,766.708,719.503,013.70263,52011,452.9099,410.117,953.7014,990.109,312.803,532.40263,11211,790.70101,606.217,560.6014,431.009,589.003,349.40262,70711,915.70104,278.517,720.8014,318.009,590.903,376.50262,14412,243.002006 .105,489.218,216.7013,736.409,279.903,19.90261 ,93212,417.30(2) Ci (kg)Year GrainVegetable Eatable plant oil PorkMutton and beef Poultry Fresh egg Aquatic product Fruit1997 88 59113.347.2015.343.704.9411.139.3045.481998 86.72113.767.515.883.344.65 .10.769.8447.86199984.91114.94.7816.913.094.92 .10.9210.3454.2182.31114.748.163.335.4411.2111.7457.482001 79.69115.868.0815.953.175.3010.4110.3359.902002 78.48116.528.5220.283.009.2410.5613.2056.5179.52118.349.220.433.319.2011.1913.3557.792004 78. 18122.32).2919.19 .3.66中国煤化工12.4856.452005 76.98118.589.2520.153.71HCNMH G 12.5556.692006 75.92117.56.3820.003.7812.9560.17203Zhu P, Zhang L. / Ecological Economy (2009)5:195-204Appendix B: Indirect water consumption data(3) TCi(104 t)YearGrainVegetableOil cropFruitMutton and beefSoyAquatic product199749,417.6534,472.6492,157.3319,238.471625.201,472.841,320.69199851,229.3138,485.3662,313.8619,640.566714.501,515.173,906.66199950,838.6740,513.5162,601.15311,700.919756.691,425.054,122.43200046,217.5442,399. 6802,954.83012,026.1801,147.001,541.124,278.49200145,263.7748,337.3612,864.89718,320.938841.531,540.704,382.10200245,706.0052,908.8722,897.20514,374.578901.271,650.704,546.96200343,069.0054,032.3002,81 1.00014,517.400987. .691,539.404,706.11200446,947.0055,064.6603,065.91015,340.8821,075.201,740.004,901.77200548.402.4056,451.4903,077.10016,120.1001,635.005,107.60200649,747.9058,325.5303,059.39024,880.5901,219.701,596.705,290.40(3) (continued)P(10%)IAE (10 hm2)Tg (10* hm)Cg (kg)TCg (10+t)IGE (10* hm2)TAE (102 hm2)39,44935.99.90265,2573.7061,927.79148,351.841,60836,938.51264,44951,435.45151,002.943,74838,790.68264,3983.0947.,234.00152,734.545,90642,862.11263,7693.3335,153.91152,217.748,06443,225.93263,8463.1747,770.51151,108.550,21246,733.75263,5203.0044,044.07150,477.652,37651,372.48263,1123.31987.6946,182.76147,677.054,28348,038.11262,7073.6648,543.04148,862.956,21248,322.81262,1443.7147,662.79151,.936.857,70649,461.25261,9323.7846,843.39152,979.5(3) (continued) (10* m)TAWIAW .IRWTFWIFWTIWM (10* m/km2)a3,606875.0532,875.15731470.9573,821.16829.360.231998 3,495854.9513,163.78827258.5504,077.28935.800.221999 3,564905.1652.555.79330662.7073,523.66629.70.203,467976.2382,277.2881760.1623,313.688 .29.190.193,487997.3872,576.10933961.9873,635.48328.310.182002 3,3741,047.8612,705.17936271.8023,824.84229.803,0561,063.0932,829.1027778.5883,970.78229.000.212004 3,2261,040.8892,460.88836075.473中国煤化工2005 3,2251,025.6462,844.05335574.140MYHCNMHG2006 3,3041,068.1732,576. 1496164.2913,708.61326.75204