面向未来的燃油和车辆技术的燃油添加剂

ISSN 1674-8484汽车安全与节能学报, 2010年,第1卷第2期3/12CN 11-5904/U J Automotive Safety and Energy, 2010, Vol. 1 No. 2107-114 .Fuel Additives for Future Fuel and Vehicle TechnologiesJoseph W. ROOS, Larry J. CUNNINGHAM, XU Fuqiang (许富强)*(Afton Chemical Corporation. Richmond Virginia, *Afion Chemical Trading Company, Bejing 10000, China)vehicle performance, meanwhile studied fuel additive application for advanced hybrid vehicles and direct injection engines.Transportation fuel and vehicle technology are rapidly evolving in response to regulatory and commercial eforts to assure energysupply, improve fuel economy and reduce mobile source emissions. Along with these changes, the fuels must meet the demandsfor transportation and storage in a safe and eficint manner and the vehile performance requirements to ensure acceptableoperation in consumer use. This evaluation looks at the broad class of fuel additives and considers how they can provide fuelproducers with a means to readily delivr safe and efctite transportation of fuel and to alo for efective operation of changingengine technologies.Key words: fuel additives; fuel propeties; performance additives面向未来的燃油和车辆技术的燃油添加剂Joseph W. ROOS', Larry J. CUNNINGHAM',许富强(1. Afion Chemical Corporation, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA ;2. 雅富顿贸易(北京)有限公司，北京1000,中国摘要: 回顾了燃料添加剂在生产优质运输燃料和优化车辆性能中的作用，研究了燃料添加剂在先进混合动力汽车和直喷发动机上的应用。为了满足 法规和经济效益上对保证能液供给，提高燃油经济性和降低车辆排放的要求,运输燃料和车辆技术正快速发展。与之对应，要求燃料能够进行安全有效的运输和存储，并能满足车辆的正常使用。回顾了各种燃料添加剂，这些添加剂给燃料生产商提供了一种安全有效的燃料运输方式，且能够满足不断发展的发动机技术的要求，使新技术得到有效应用。关键词:燃料添加剂;燃料性能;性能添加剂中图分类号: U473.5; X734.2Introductiontransportation fuel and ensures optimal engine performance.sportation sector. Over the next 10 to 20 years, the efforts toThis paper will review the general classes of aditives used toensure production of high quality fuel and explore performanceimprove eficincy, fuel economy and reduce emisions willbe the dominant factors driving change in engine and fuelattributes of fuel additives that are enabling vehicles and fuels totechnology. Over time, the most efective means of meetingevolve to meet tighter fuel economy and emission requirements.the efficiency and emission goals will become clear, however,the direction for change is apparent and some of the first steps1 The Role of Fuel Additives in Producingrequired for engines and fuel technology are well known. AQuality Transportation Fuelkey factor that is enabling the evolution in both the engine andThe properties and sources中国煤化Iythe fuel is the development of efctive fuel aditive technologyevolving, driven by regulati:TYHCNMH GrReceived: 2009-12-24*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: jason.xu@aftonchemical.com08J Automotive Safety and Energy2010, Vol. 1 No. 2pressures. The changes are motivated by sometimes conflicting of the benefits of desulfurization of gasoline is the improve-desires to support local economies, improve efficiency, improve ment in its oxidative stability. Gasoline blended with ethanolenergy security, and reduce emissions or lower fuel carbonhas similar stability properties as the hydrocarbon base gasoline.footprint. These different drivers lead to major changes inDiesel fuel normally degrades by mechanisms other than oxida-gasoline and diesel fuel quality and production source. Sulfurreduction and rapidly increasing use of renewable fuels are twotion. Frequently, heterocyclic and other sulfur and nitrogencontaining molecules will react with each other or acidicchanges that are occurring in formulation of both gasoline andcomponents found in other diesel fuel blend components resul-diesel fuel.ting in sediments, which can plug fuel filters and deposit inFuel additives are being developed and employed to addresscritical fueling locations, such as fuel injectors. Amine-basedthe specific needs that are arising as sulfur is removed fromadditives, sometimes combined with dispersants, are used tofuels and renewable fuels and blend stocks are more widelycontrol the stability of diesel fuel. Deep desulfurization orused. One category of additives function to ensure a fuelhydro-processing will eliminate most of the reactive speciespossesses appropriate properties required for the manufacture.found in higher sulfur diesel fuel. Biodiesel, while normallydistribution and storage of the fuel. A second category oflow in sulfur, degrades through an oxidative process that isadditives is designed to influence cleanliness and combustioncontrolled using hindered phenol antioxidants.characteristics of the fuel to ensure that fuels with widelyMetal deactivators are used to neutralize the catalytic efectvarying composition provide needed performance in an engine.of these metals, such as copper, that can lead to sediment andIn both cases, tests have been, or are being, developed andgum formation. Most biodiescl antioxidants contain a metalemployed to assess additive performance. Ideally, these testsdeactivator to control catalytic degradation.should correlate, to performance problems that arise in the“teaworld" rather than as an artifact of the testing method, whichTable 1 provides a summary of antioxidant and stabilizerchemistries used in fuels and their primary applications.during which performance problems can and do develop. TestSummaryantioxidant and stabilizer chemistries andmethods undergo refinements from time to time with thistheir primary applicationsspecific ise in mind. In addition, decisions concerning useof the available additives should in all cases be made on aProduct ChemistryMain UseJet fuelsHindered PhenolUItra-low sulfur distillateeffective slate of fuels for individual marketing areas dependingRelatively stable gasolineupon the sophistication of the available fuel manufacturing,Phenylenediamine (PDA)Very stable gasolinedistribution and storage systems and the vehicles in whichHindered Phenol/PDAMost gasolineMilitary jet, gasoline andthe fuels are to be used. The next two sections address theMetal Deactivatordistillate with metalspotential need for these two categories of additives.Cold climatesAmines and DispersantsUnstable ditillate fuels1.1 Fuel additives used to maintain fuel integrityand distribution safety and efficiency1.1.2 Cold fow improv ing additives1.1.1 Antioxidants and stabilizersdistilled from crude oil. The paraffin can vary considerablyin concentration and molecular weight depending on source,Degraded fuels can form gums and sediment that plug fuelchemical composition and processing of the crude oil. Higherfilters, create deposits on sensitive fuel system components andmolecular weight paraffins have limited solubility in diesel fuelinterfere with the proper operation of motor vehicles. The typeand precipitate from the bulk fuel in the form of wax crystalsof degradation that occurs, however, is diferent for gasolinewhen the fuel cools. The cloud point is the temperature thisand diesel fuels.separation occurs. As more wax precipitates, these crystalsGasoline can undergo oxidative degradation and form gumcan restrict the flow of diesel fuel from storage tanks and pipesdeposits in engine components that lead to poor drivability andincreased emissions. Fuels with high olefin and diene concentra-can be diluted with kerosene or No.1 diesel fuel and lower thetions are typically more susceptible to oxidation. To control gum cloud point of the fuel. Altermtivhi rld fmmmi=CFI)formation in gasoline, refineries use phenolic and aromaticor wax crystal modifying acYH中国煤化工theamine antioxidants. Antioxidants are most effective when theylow temperature propertiesCNMH Gare added to reactive blend streams such as cat cracked (FCC),coker or polymeric gasoline streams as they are produced. OnePour point depressants are one class of CFI used to keep dieselfuel fluid and transportable. They co-crystallize with paraffinsJoseph W. ROOS, et al: Fuel Additives for Future Fuel and Vehicle Technologies10and disrupt the structure of the wax crystals. Fuels areTable 2 Impact of wax setling and WASA additive on the cloudnormally treated with pour point depressant at the refinery.point of an ULSDA second class of CFIs, operability additives are designed toCloud pin/Bottom 20% of stted fuelimprove the filterability of diesel fuel through diesel fuel filtersBase Fuel (cloud - 14 C )at low temperatures and function as wax crystal nucleators,+ CFI additive @ IX- 109crystal modifiers and crystal dispersants. Nucleators precipitatefrom the fuel as wax crystals begin to precipitate and ofer many+ CFI additive @ 2Xsites for the initiation of wax crystal formation. With many+ CFI aditive @ 3Xnucleating sites, the crystals remain small and are able to passthrough vehicle fuel fiters without plugging them. Operability 1.1.3 Lubrieityadditives normally treat at considerably higher treat ratesThe diesel fuel fraction of crude oil contains sulfur and nitrogencompared to pour point depressants.compounds that provide natural lubrication to protect vehicleBiodiesel, the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), renewable fuelsfuel pumps and injectors from wear. With desulfurization,derived from refineries processing oils and fats in hydroprocess-these naturally occurring lubricity components are removed,resulting in fuel that increases wear and eventual failure ofeffect on the low temperature properties of diesel fuel and ancritial vehicle fuel-delivery components用.additive' s ability to improve the low temperature properties ofLow sulfur (LSD) and ultra low sulfur (ULSD) diesel fuelsbiodiesel blends. In all cases, greater concentrations of lessare frequently additized with lubricity additives to protectsoluble paraffin and biodiesel components precipitate when acritical injection system componentsfuel cools and are more dffcult to control. Figure 1 ilustrates are generally classified as neutral or acidic. Neutral additives,the impact of treat rate of CFI additives on the cold filter plugg-esters and amides, normally require higher treat rates compareding point of base diesel fuels and the base fuel containing soy600methyl ester (SME) biodiesel.When fuel at temperatures below its cloud point remains .undisturbed for a period of time, wax crystals tend to settle to00 Fthe bottom of the vessel containing the fuel, causing stratifica-Mono -acidNeutralthe top and bottom of the vessel2l Wax anti-setting additives00 f(WASA) are used to disperse the wax throughout the fueltank. Table 2 shows the impact of wax settling on the cloudpoint of fuel with and without additives providing WASA30010020performance.Relative aditive treat rate/ 10-Typically, ethylene vinyl acetates (EVA), copolymers andFig. 2 Mono-acid lubricity aditive comparison to neutralterpolymers and their derivatives form the core of a today' slubricity additives.cold flow packages B. Other proprietary components enhanceto more costeffective, mono-acid lubricity additives (Figure 2).the performance on these polymers.Biodiesel fuel has chermistry similar to some lubricity additives-10-and when blended with diesel fuel provides significantimprovement to the fuel' s lubricating properties and in manycases eliminating the need for additional lubricity additives.8Renewable diesel does not provide lubricity benefits whenincorporated into traditional diesel fuel and therefore, must be_B(11)treated with lubricity additives.BaseB(5)1.1.4 Pipeline corrosion inhibitors01>2)3:Most diesel fuel and gasolit中国煤化工Normalized additive treat ratethrough a mild cartbon steeYHCNMHGnsteel storage tanks. Small qFig. 1 Average CFPP response of 5 base fuels and blends offuel can cause internal corrosion in pipelines and storage tanks,the 5 base fuels and SME treated at 3 levels of CFI.thereby producing fine rust that coats the inside of pipeline and10J Automotive Safety and Energy2010, Vol. 1 No. 2storage tank walls. This rust can increase drag in the pipeline,refinery or at terminals before the fuel is loaded into a tanker.reducing pumping efficiency and it can separate from theOne benefit of biodiesel is its ability to increase the conduc-pipeline and storage tank walls and create uncessary wearFigure 3 shows that different sourceson critical pipeline metering and pumping equipment. Rusthitorsof biodiesel have different effects on conductivity, even whenthey are made from the same feed stock.are normally used to protect the distribution system fromcorrosion.00 rTypical pipeline corrosion inhibitors can provide protection for00 Fbiodiesel fuels. However, these pipeline corrosion inhibitorsSME 1are not optimal for gasoline containing ethanol. Ethanol andwater can phase separate from gasoline. Ethanol corrosioninhibitors should be designed to not only protect fromcorrosion0o fin the hydrocarbon phase but also the ethanol water phase.Some ethanol corrosion inhibitors provide buffering propertiesdesigned to control the pH of the ethanol. Caution should be040608C100taken in seleting ethanol corrosion inhibitors as some canVolume SME 1 %increase engine intake system deposits, especially in highFig. 3 Conductivity of biodiesel blends as a function ofethanol content fuels such as E-85.biodiesel concentration for SME from two differentsources1.1.5 Other corrosion inhibitors2 Fuel Additives for Optimal VehicleAlthough iron oxidation is a major cause of fuel systemPerformanceto corrosion caused by reactive sulfur species found in some2.1 Fuel additives employed to modify combustiondiesel fuels and gasoline. As a result, many fuel specificationsThe combustion characteristics of fuel are generally controlledhave copper corrosion limits as determined by a copper stripby the fuel' s chemical composition. One of the key combustiontest. Typically thiadiazole chemistry is efective at controllingproperties is the ability to ignite the fuel and air charge at ancopper corrosion.optimum time in an engine. Fuel ignition is a radical-drivenMore recently, there have been cases of silver contacts in fuelreaction, and properly designed fuel additives can have a signi-ficant impact on ignition, enhancing or retarding the propensityother sulfur speies remaining in gasoline after the dsufrirz for igition in gasolie or diesel fuel.tion process. This problem has ocurred sporadically in North2.1.1 Diesel ignition improving additivesAmerica and the standards board, ASTM, now requires gasolineThe cetane number of diesel fuel is a measure of the fuel'sto pass a silver crrosion test in order to meet their specifications.propensity to ignite and is determined by the fuel s chemical1.1.6 Conductivity improverscomposition. Fuels with higher paraffin content tend to haveIn order to eliminate the potential for a spark to ignite fuelcomponents have a lower cetane quality. The lower the dieselvapors, for years jet fuel, and in some cases, other ditillatefuels, have been treated with additives to dissipate static-chargefuel' s cetane number, the longer the fuel' s ignition delay time.This longer ignition delay leads to incomplete combustion, los:fuel is discharged into an improperly grounded vessel suchof power and increased gaseous, particulate and white smoke(unburned fuel) emissions. Energetic cetane improving addi-as a fuel tanker. As a result, if the tanker switches back-and-forth between hauling diesel fuel and gasoline, the potential fortives are added to diesel fuel to reduce the ignition delay time [8.gasoline vapors to remain in the container while loading dieselfuel creates the risk of an explosion and fire. Desulfurizationstudies have demonstrated that increasing the cetane numberof diesel fuel significantly lowers diesel fuel's natural conduc-of a fuel will result in general reduction in NO, emission fromtivity resulting in a greater risk of explosion or fire. To reducea diesel enginel . This is a result of the shorter ignitionthe potential for static-charge buildup during transfer of fueldelay time for higher cetane V中国煤化工peakfrom one vessel to another, conductivity additives are now:YHCN MH Gete dfrequently added to ultra low sulfur diesel fuel. Fuel conduc-a thorough analysis of cetantivity is temperature dependent with conductivity decreasing as range of fuels and engine types and identified significant NO,a fuel cools. Conductivity improvers can be added at either thereduction obtainable with the use of additives to increaseJoseph W. ROOS, et al: Fuel Additives for Future Fuel and Vehicle Technologies11cetane ". Reduction in HC, CO and particulates were alsorecapture system energy, In all cases, keeping the fuel and airobserved with the increase in fuel cetane number.delivery systems clean is critical to ensure proper operation.The following sections will consider the impact of performanceimprove fuel cetane quality include alkyl nitrates and peroxides.of additives in a number of engine technologies designed toThe alkyl nitrates are the preferred commercial source of cetaneprovide improved fuel efficiency and reduced emissions.improver due to low cost and favorable handling characteristics.2.2.1 Diesel performance additives2.1.2 Octane improving additivesFuel-related deposits can form on critical diesel engine compo-The octane quality of gasoline measures a fuel' s propensity tonents, reducing the engine' s efficiency and power, and increas-resist auto ignition, and is an important property for gasoline.ing gaseous and particulate emissions. The most critical loca-The chemical composition of the gasoline determines the basetion for fuel-related deposits in modern fuel-injection systemsgasoline octane level. Molecules such as aromatics and olefinsis coking deposits located near the tip of the injector. Theseare less susceptible to spontaneous ignition under pressuredeposits can restrict fuel flow and modify fuel spray pattern,and have a higher-octane value. A fuel' s octane quality canresulting in incomplete mixing of fuel and air, and infficientbe improved by the use of additives or high-octane blendcombustion. Dispersant additives are widely used to control thecomponents, such as oxygenates or aromatic componentsformation of these types of deposits in fuel injectors.that are added to fuel at levels ranging from around 1% toBesides controlling deposit formation, diesel performanceadditives are frequently formulated with a number of otheroctane-improving additive, mmt⑧, methylcyclopenta-dienylcomponents to provide additional functionality to the package.manganese tricarbonyl, improves octane number two to threePackages frequently contain cetane improvers, wax crystalRON and is used around the world at Mn levels under 18 mg/Lmodifiers or CFIs, combustion improvers, lubricity additives,to increase the octane quality of gasolinel.demulsifiers, antifaming additives and deicing additives. TheThe increased use of high octane quality blend componentsdispersant used in diesel fuel also tends to emulsify water,and the additive mmt have reduced the processing severity ongasoline blend components in refineries resulting in increasedadequate demulsifiers into the package to control water pickupfuel volume and reduced refinery greenhouse gas emissionsl!13]by the fuel is highly important. Likewise, if water is present inLow levels of ethanol blended with gasoline, 10% or lessa fuel, it is important to prohibit any ice crystals from forminghave ltte or no impact on fuel system deposits. Higher levelthat could also plug fuel filters. Glycol ether deicers areethanol blends such as 85%, have been shown to increasenormally used to manage water contaminationinjector fouling and add to intake valve depositsl4.The indirect injection diesel (IDI) engine has now been replaced2.2 Fuels system deposit control additivesfor reasons of fuel economy, performance and lower emissions.Throughout the world, once gasoline and diesel fuel areFor these same reasons, heavy duty engines are beginning toproduced and shipped, fuel producers and marketers widelymore widely utilize high pressure direct injection systems.use fuel additives to improve fuel quality and its performanceThe injection system delivers improved atomization and fuelin vehicles. These multifunctional additive packages frequently air mixing but also enables the use of multiple injections intocontain dispersants or detergents designed to keep the vehiclethe cylinder to more closely control the combustion event. Thefuel distribution systems clean and operating at optimalinjectors, key components in the performance of the engine,efficiency. These additives allow for fuel marketers to provideare seen as vulnerable to having their operation perturbed bypremium fuels to the end users and alw performance-driven market differentiation. In some markets, government ordeposit formation in engines under development to meet EUROindustry require performance additives as part of a strategy tov emission regulations [15reduce emissions from motor vehicles.Fuel efficiency is a primary force driving change in vehicleing, two standard test methods are widely used. The XUD9technology. Throughout the vehicle, engine and drive train,test, CEC F-23-01, uses an older indirect injection diesel enginedesigns are evolving to improve the efficiency with which thetechnology. The more rece中国煤化工Stvchicle uilieis the enery from fuel. The design changesTYHCNMH Gecan take the form of reduced loss in pumping efficiency andengine. This engine is equipstratified charge in direct injection gasoline engines, efficientinjection system. In the DW10 test, a base fuel containing ahigh injection pressure diesel engines or hybrid systems thatZn dopant is employed to promote injector coking. The relative12J Automotive Safety cand Energy2010, Vol. 1 No. 2coking level is followed by monitoring the engine power lossa fairly low commercial treat rate, reduced valve deposits byas the injectors foul. With the addition of an effective additivean average of almost 30%. The emission performance andchemistry, injector deposits are prevented and no power loss isfuel consumption of these vehicles was also measured beforeobserved"6l.operation on the additised fuel and after the clean-up phase.As ilustrated in Figure s, after operation of the additised fuel2.2.2 Gasoline performance additivesand subsequent IVD clean-up, average hydrocarbon, carbonmonoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from the vehicles werefuel related deposits tend to form on various fuel systemall reduced. While one of the vehicles in this test displayedcomponents When these deposits occur, fuel injectors can foul,most of the fuel economy improvement, there was an averageleading to poor fuel delivery and volatilization that result inof slightly greater than 1% improvement in fuel economy forincreased emissions and drivability problems. W hen depositsthe fleet after the fuel/intake system clean-up.form on intake valves, interference with air fuel mixing takesplace, resulting in increased emissions and loss of power and00。acceleration. Depoits also form in the combustion chamberleading to increased octane requirements and loss of perfor-00 Fmance, and in some cases, engine knock.■Base FuelMany early versions of gasoline additives were low molecularm Additisedweight amine-based chemistries designed to keep carburetors00 tclean and avoid carburetor icing [17]. With the introductionof fuel-injected vehicles in the 1980s, higher concentrationsFiatFordVolvoof these additives were required to keep fuel injectors clean.However, the higher concentrations also contributed toaFig. 4 Intake valve deposit clean up using base fuels containinggasoline additive in three vehicles. clean up is of depositbuilt form base fuelcontrol IVD, higher MW amine-based chemistry blendedwith mineral oil“carriers”became the predominate method5厂for controlling fuel injector and intake valve deposits 18s。 2combustion chamber deposits and increases in engine octanerequirement. As a result of the additives' inefficiencies, in15 Fthe early 1990s, mineral oil carriers were phased out while0Fsynthetic carriers started becoming widely used in formulatinggasoline performance additives (GPA) as we know them today.2.2.2.1 Port fuel injected engines cleanliness and performancePort fuel nieeted gasoline engines have been in the marketTHCJO,Emissionsfor many years and represent the engine technology utilizedFig. 5 Average emission reduction achieved after clean up forthree vehiclesreduce emissions and improve fuel economy, manufactureshave worked to improve design and control of the engine,2.2.2.2 Hybrid valve cleanlinessspecifically to control the air to fuel ratio. Deposits in the fuelintake system can have detrimental impact on preparation ofUnlike the port fuel injected gasoline engines discussed above,the air/fuel charge leading to sub optimal engine performance [19]a gasoline hybrid vehicle uses its gasoline engine periodicallyDetergent fuel additives, added to gasoline can work to remove and the specific conditions under which the engine and electricpreviously formed fuel system deposits and restore vehiclemotor operate are dependent on the design philosophy of theperformance, lowering emissions and improving fuel economy20manufacturer. The engine may be switched off during lowspeed operation, for example, or when the vehicle is at rest.The gasoline detergent aditives keep valves clean and canclean-up dirty valves, improving fuel efficiency and lower. The period of time after an中国煤化工'vehicle emissions. The efeet of a gasoline detergent aditivehot can have a dramatic inflon valve cleanliness for three vehicles designed to meet strin-system deposits. During thisMHCNMHGgent EU IV or US Tier 2 emission standards is ilustrated invalve or through the injector. The fuel remaining on the valveFigure 4. Over a short period of time, a detergent additive, ator in the injector can break down to form deposits. ComparedJoseph W. ROOS, et al: Fuel Additives for Future Fuel and Vehicle Technologies11to an engine in a non-hybrid configuration, the hybrid engineGasoline detergent additives can be used to provide variousexperiences a greater frequency of hot soaks and may showlevels of performance in the DIG enginel24. Figure 6 show thegreater propensity to form fuel system deposits or alter therelative performance of two different additive technologies ateffectiveness of additives originally designed to provide fueltypical commercial treat rates.system cleanliness in non-hybrid vehicles 01Both of these technologies provide good performance in PFIThe performance of two additives regularly found in gasolineengines. However, one is designed to also provide protectionon IVD in a hybrid engine is displayed in Table 3. The fuelagainst deposit formation in DIG engines. For reference, thewithout additive resulted in the formation of an average of 192mg of deposits per valve. Detergent at a typical commercialThe fuel additive mmt improved performance of the base fuel,treat rate provided significant protection, with only 14 mg ofresulting in almost a 33% reduction in flow loss compared to adeposit per valve while increasing the treat rate by a factorbase fuel without mmt.of three resulted in superior cleanliness with about 1 mg ofdeposit per valve. The fuel additive mmt is widely used in10■Base Fuelgasoline to increase octane and has been shown to provideenhanced valve cleanliness in non-hybrid vehicles. Thisenhanced cleanliness was also observed in the hybrid vehicle.■Base Fuel + mmtIn this case, the base fuel containing the detergent at the typicalcommercial treat rate and mmt provided the same superior■Gasolineperformance as observed from the use of the detergent in theDetergentbase fuel at three times the typical treat rate.2m GasolineTable 3 IVD in gasoline hybrid using base fuel, fuel withDetergtent with / DIGdetergent at two treat rates and fuel containing mmtFuelCapabilitywith detergentFig. 6 Cleanliness performance of additives in direct injectiondditiveVDIVD (vs base)gasoline engine(1X or 3X Treat rate)neBase (no additive)92Detergent (1X)4- 923 SummaryDetergent (3X)-99The focus on improving efficiency, fuel economy and reducing- 99emission in the transport sector is driving changes to both+ mmt @Mn 8.3 mg/Lfuels and engine technology. The fuel changes are taking theIn which, mmt is Methy-cyclopentadienyl-Maganese-form of modification to fuels produced from petroleum sourcesTricarbonylplace new demands on the storage and distribution systems to2.2.2.3 Direct Injection Gasoline - Injector Pluggingensure fuels can be effectively transported in a safe fashionThe direct injection gasoline (DIG) engine operates by injee-and maintain their integrity. In addition, the fuels themselvesting fuel directly into the combustion chamber and is capablemay not possess the appropriate properties for use through theof providing significantly improved fuel eficiency. The propervehicle park.formation of the fuelair mixture in the cylinder is important to ;There are a number of engine technologies that may be adoptedensure robust engine operation over the full range of operatingconditions. Formation of fuel injector deposits can adverselyemissions. While some of the changes in fuel properties areimpact fuel spray formation and reduce levels of fuel injectedbeing driven by engine technical requirements, not all of theinto the engine impacting engine operation.needs of new engine can be met by directly altering bulk fuelThe injectors in the DIG engine are exposed to higher tempera-properties.ture than those used in the PFI vehicles discussed above, andFuel additives will play an increasingly important role as neware potentially prone to the formation of deposits that restrictfuel and engines technologi中国煤化工flow and adversely impact performance (22 3. Injector manu- safe and effective transportaYH .CNMHGfactures design the injetors with the goal of reducing theeffective operation of changvespropensity for deposit formation, but often injector depositscan help reduce vehicle emissions, improve fuel efficiency,will form nonetheless.drivability and allow engines to operate as designed. They14J Automotive Safety and Energy2010, Vol. 1 No. 2fuel vehicles operating on E85 [R] SAE Technical Paper, 2007-produce high-quality fuels. As they have for many years, fuel01-4071, 2007.additive tchnology will continue to enable the formulation of[15]Leedham A, Caprotti R, Graupner O, Klaua T. Impact of fuelfuels to meet specifications in a cost-effective manner, upgradeadditives on diesel injector deposits [R]. SAE Technical Paper,fuel quality, and improve the overall performance in gasoline2004-01-2935, 204.and diesel-powered vehicles.[16] Hawthorne M, Roos J W, Openshaw M J. Use of Fucl additivesto maintain modern diesel engine performance with severe testReferencesconditions [R]. SAE Technical Paper 2008-01-1806, 2008.[1] Chevron Diesel Fuels Technical Review (FTR-2)[Z]. USA:[17] Udelhofen J H, Zahalka T L. Gasoline additive requirements forChevron Products Co, 1998.today' s small engines [R]. SAE Technical Paper 881644, 1988.[2] Gairing M, Marriott J M, Reders K H, Reglitzky A A, Wolveridge[|8] Lenane D L, Stocky T P. Gasoline aditives solve injector depositP E. The Effeet of Modern Additive Technology on Diesel Fuelproblems [R]. SAE Technical Paper, 861537, 1986.Performance [R]. SAE Technial Paper, 950252, 19.[19] Btting W H, Gschwendtner F, Kohlepp W, Kothe M, TestroetC J,[3] Marie E, Chevalier Y, Eydoux F, Germanaud L, Flores P. ControlZiwica K H. Intake valve deposits -Fuel detergency requirementsof n-alkanes Cystallization by Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Copolymersrevisited [R]. SAE Technical Paper, 872117, 1987.小J Colloid and Interface Sci, 2005, 290: 406-418.[20]Zahalka T L, Kulinowsk A M, Malfer D J. A fleet evaluation of[4] Nikanjam, M. Diesel fuel lubricity: On the path to speificationsIVD and CCD: Emissions effects and correlation to the BMW 3181[R]. SAE Technical Paper, 19901-1479, 1999and ford 2.3L IVD tests [R]. SAE Technical Paper, 952447, 1995.[5] Lacey P I, Mason R L. Fuel lbrcity: Stistial analysis of[21] Hawthorne M, Andre, M. Characteristic vehicle operation forliterature data [R] SAE Technical Paper, 2000-01-1917, 2000.fuel additive test development [C]/ 6th International Colloquium[6] ARB, Public Workshop on regulaory and non-regulatory fuelsFuels, Sutart/ Ostfildern, Germany, 2007.activities for 2003, Sacramento, CA [EB/OL]. (2003-04-10). htp://[22] Noma K, Noda T, Ashida T, Kamioka R, Hosono K, Nishida r,ww.bagoftls/dese/04100p.df 2003.Kameoka A, Koseki K, Watanabe M, TakahashiK, Koide s,[7] National BioDiesel Board. Electrical conductivity of biodiesel [EB/Suzuki T, Fukui H, Hirose M. Ohta s, Notsuki,Y, Tsuboi K. Astudy of injector deposits, combustion chamber deposits (CCD)OL]. (2009), ht:/wwidiesel.rg/pdf fle/lfactheets/electrical_ .conductivity.pdf.and intake valve deposits (IVD) in direct injection spark ignition(DISIS) engines [R]. SAE Technical Paper, 2002-01-2659, 2002.[8] Stein Y, Yetter R A, Dryer F L, Aradi A. Autoignition behaviorof; surogate diesel fuel mixtures and the chemical effectsofeffeet of fuel composition and engine operating parameters on2-ethylhexyl nitrate (2-EHN) cetane improver [R]. SAE TechnicalPaper, 199-01-1504, 199.injector deposits in a high-pressure direct injection gasoline (DIG)Research Engine [R]. SAE Technical Paper, 199-01-3690, 199.[9] Ullman T, Spreen K, Mason R. Effects of cetane number onemissions from a prototype 1998 heavy-duty diesel engine [R].SAE Technical Paper 950251, 1995.[10] Star M E. Influence on transient emissions at various injectorJoseph Roostimings using cetane improvers, bio-diesel, and low aromatic fuels[R] SAE Technical Paper, 97204, 1997.Director of Technology Development at Afton ChemicalCorporation, with more than 20 years experience in[1] U.S. EPA, The Effct of cetane number increase due to aditive onresearch, development and commercial applications ofNO, emissions from heavy-duty highway engines, Final technicalpetroleum additives and specialty chemicals, publishedreport [R]. EPA20-R-03-002, 2003.numerous technical papers and patents in combustion,[12] Hollrah D P, Burns A M.1991 MMT increases octane whileemissions, vehicle and fuel operation, additive performancereducing emissions [J]. Oil & Gas J, 1991, 89(1): 85-90.and stationary combustion systems.[13] Hollrah D P, Roos J w. Flexibility in the production of cleanJoseph Roos博土,雅富顿化学公司技术开发部总监。burning gasoline [C]// 16th World Petroleum Congress, Calgary,在研发、汽油添加剂的商业应用和特殊化学品有20多年Canada, 200的经验;在燃烧、排放、汽车与燃料使用、添加剂性能和[14] Dumont R J, Cunningham L J, Oliver M K, Studzinski w M,固定燃烧系统方面发表诈Galante-Fox J M. Controlling induction system deposits in flexible中国煤化工CNMHG